Yemwe,yemwe Muhaguruke Turwanye SIDA

20/11/2024

Ariko ubundi ubusinzi si ingeso wakihana? Kubatwa nabyo ni mu mutwe
Muge mumenya igihe gikwiye cyo kwica icyaka

19/11/2024

Ese ko twirengagije imigenzo ( customs) ubu bwo niyo wabura aho wicara wakicara ku ingoma ( iyi ngombamirishyo) ?

04/11/2024

Wifuza Page yange " Yemwe yemwe Muhaguruke Turwanye SIDA " urayiha angahe?

Wibuke yahanzwe 2013 iba Published 2019, ifite post zingana akarindagizo , ikagira Con3tents ziri Sponsored ikagira pagelogos, ikagira Post zitabarika zitarasohoka mbega zizasohoka ku itariki izwi nanģe gusa , Two factors whileentering, Automaticall save , Facebook for business,,,,,,,,

Nibura mu mwaka natakwa n'abahakazi 9 bose nkabashyira unmoderated , Ikindi kandi ninge Admin wayo gusa, nibura mu minsi 7 nkurikirwa n'abantu 19K, ntegereje izanyu ngo zinshikire ibe Self Production ikaba itarapostinzweho inkuru nimwe yagaragaye kuri Internet ubwo mfite Copyright ku inkuru zandintweho, nta rukozasoni rubaho, nta mvugo zihembera urwango zibaho, nta mvugo nyandagazi zibaho, imyandikire iri ntakemwa n'idakosotse uko akanya kabonetse turabikosora

Yee! erega nta byera ngo de, wowe njya inbox rero

31/10/2024

Umukobwa twiganye aheruka kumbwira ati :" wowe icyo dupfana ni ukunsobanurira gusa" ubwo uwo yaguha ?

24/10/2024

Uhamagawe n'umukobwa akwisabira kumusura kuwe wajyayo cg wakeka ikindi?

20/10/2024

Amafoto yose dushyira ku

Amafoto kuva kera cyane yarukundwe kugeza magingo aya amafoto uwavuga ko ayoboye isi ntiyaba abeshye. Nikenshi uzanyura k'urubyiruko rufite akuma gafata amafoto bihindukiza ,bihindurura bamwenyura gake ,baseka batuye mbega biryoheye.

Ibintu byo gushyira amafoto ahabona bireze kumuvuduko bitigege bikorwaho ku ibisekuru byatubanjirije. Uzongera kandi ubone umwana auri wenyinye ,mugatsiko se afite insakazamajwi mu ntoki ashyiremo indirimbo y'abandi age imbere y'ibyuma bifata amashusho atangire abyine nk'uwahanzeho . Iyo abyinira imbere y'ibi byuma ntanakimwe aba yitayeho we muhe kubyinira ku karubanda abahisi n'abagenzi batambuka atitaye ko hari uwakomerekera muri ibyo bitwiko byawe umva nawe muri ako gatwiko da niko urubyiruko rubyita.

Reka turebere hamwe mu mutwe w'umuntu ubyinira ku muhanda afata amashusho no mu isoko yabikora........
Nsinsoje

17/10/2024

GUTAHA UBUKWE BWA SO UKUZE

Abakuze murabizi gutaha ubukwe birashimisha yewe bikananyura ababutashye. Mucyaro ho baratebya bakanavuga ngo muze mutwereka amashami mwungutse noneho bagatebya bagaterura abana babo.

Ntibikiri inkuru niko bimeze gutaha ubukwe ,gukora ubikwe ntibikigombera kuba ufite imyaka ikiri mike ,kuba ufite igihe cyo guteretana no kubaba muri wowe kuri wowe ufite amafaranga meshi oya bisaba kuba wiyemeje gukunda no kuryoherwa nawawundi ukunda nyinye aka wamuhanzi wagize uti " Urukundo ni indwara y'umutima'' nibyo urukundo ni indwara y'umutima.

Abantu benshi bakunda gushaka ndavuga kubaka urugo bakiri bato naho abantu b'uyu munsi bo kubaka ntibikiri ikintu k'ibanze bo bahe kunywera urwangwa ,kurongora bakiri abangavu, kwibera mumageto barya, batera imbonzi,,,,,,

03/10/2024

You will always think on a man called Niyirera Jean De Dieu and his works published on Social Media. Search for him

15/09/2024

Byiza

15/09/2024

Mubyukuri abakobwa benshi sibo bereka mbere umuhungu ko bihuje byaba ibyigiciro cyuruta izahabu koko.

13/09/2024

UBUZIMA BUKAKAYE KOKO
Ubuzima busharira bubishye
Ubwenge bushotse budashoboka
Ubushake bibujijwe bujuragira
Ubukaka ubuturo buzwi

Ubuzima bukakaye koko

Ubwitonzi butuje butoza
Ubwitange ubwerere buvunanye
Ubudasa ubutozwe ubwumvo
Uburere ubush*ta ubushize

Ubuzima bukakaye koko

Ubusizi ubusigwe ubusigwa
Ubusindwe ubuvata ubunono
Uburakare ubwira ubwomanzi
Ubwibone ubwanzuro ubushukwe

09/09/2024

Abakobwa mu majwi yabo

Ibiganiro abakobwa bakunda kugirana ahanini , biba byiganjemo imyenda bambara, amavuta bisiga, ibikomo,ndetse n'indi mirimbo yaba iyo ku mazuru ,yaba iyo mwijosi bakunze kandi no kuganira ku ibiciro by'ikweto, umibavu bitera,utwambaro tw'imbere bambara,udehenze n'uduhendutse ,urwembe n'ingwe,,, . Cyangwa bakibasira abafite

Abakobwa benshi iyo batarararuka bifuza bike. Bamwe kandi bagendana n'ibigezweho ariko babyeretswe n'ababakuriye usibyo ko nogutembera mu migi itandukanye bituma bamenya aho ibintu by'imirimbo ya gikobwa biri urwego bgezeho,igiciro bizamura,uko bihenze ,bakamenya ibiciro biri ku isoko ,bakabona ibigezweho,bakitegereza uko abandi babirimbamo,bagahaha ,bakishimisha,bagatembera mbega bakaba bazi umugi dore ko hari n'abahakura izina bakabita ba kamugi , n' hari nabitwa keraho hahoze ( byose bivuze muntu wibera mu mugi cyane)

Abakobwa benshi nanone usibye ko n'abagore babyifuza kenshi iyo bateranye baba bibaza kukuntu bazabaho ejo hazaza, ukuntu ubuzima bwabo bugiye gukomezamo bakitegereza ikarita y'ubuzima bagiye gushushanya ,imigendekere y'ahazaza ikaba ingorabahiz hahandi usanga umukobwa uzobereye mu aganiriza abagenzi be ati:" Ngewe nk'ubu uwamuzan'ikigabo gifite ifaranga " wamwumvishe ? Ashaka kwihurizwa n'ikigabo gifite ifaranga nyine cyarifashe atitaye ku indwara cyamuzanira ,cyamutera se icyo we apfa n'ikigabo cyizajya cyimumenyera byose. Ibaze rero gushaka umukobwa nk'uwo uhora agatima karehareha ngo uwamuhuza n'ikigabo gifite ifaranga . Ababizi barabizi na SIDA ntibayitinya,reka ho CoVID-19 yabahaye isomo kurya mbari mana mfasha ubuho ntakintu waza umubwira yabonye icyana yaba yabonye icyana ntabintu byishyi.

Mu magambo yokukwemeza yabose bose bafite iyo ngeso yo gukura ibyinyo yabo barivugira bati :" Mbonye ikigabo kikemera kungurira inzu, imodoka, kikanshorera iduka, umva najya nkimuha akaguru nkakamanika ubundi akawukubita ,akawumanyura umva nakimuha neza maze rugaca Imana " Amagambo abokobwa bivugira iyo bari kukwereka neza uburyo babonye iryo hirwe ryo guhura n'umukire w'umugabo kandi atari uw'isezerano hari n'ababivuga bubatse nabyo birashoboka ariko ataranyuze nayayindi ararana agatima karehareha boshye umunywi w'itabi. Ibi babivuga bishimye banezerewe bakwereka ko icyo gihe baba bagize cyaba aricyo kiziranenge mubuzima bwabo.

Ushobora kuba ufite umukobwa ukiri muto, ushobora kandi gutekereza ko adafite umuhozaho ijisho ikigenzi buriya ni ugutangira ukamwereka myinshi mumitego abagabo bakoresha bashaka kumwisasira ngo bamwangiririze ahazaza heza he nk'umwangavu.

NIYIRERA Jean De Dieu umwanditsi ny'Africa

02/09/2024

University of Technology and Arts of Byumba FACULTY OF EDUCATIONPost Box: 25, Byumba, Gicumbi DistrictNorthern Province, Republic of RwandaPhone: +250 – 789 350 053Email: [email protected]: www.utab.ac.rw OF «UBU “Educability is not just one of the essential characteristics of human beings, but the most important one of all” (Immanuel Kant) BYUMBA-KIRAMURUZI, 2022-2023 Contents PART ONE: THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATION 6 PART TWO: HISTORY OF EDUCATION 12 Education in ancient civilization 12 2.1. The development of writing 13 2.2. The Middle East 15 2.3. Indian Subcontinent 16 2.4. China 17 2.5. Greece and Rome 19 2.6. Formal education in the Middle Ages (500–1600 AD) 20 Europe 20 2.7. Islamic world 23 2.8. China 24 2.9. India 26 2.10. Japan 27 2.11. Central and South American civilizations 27 Aztec 27 2.12. Inca 28 2.13. AFTER THE 15TH CENTURY 29 2.14. Europe overview 29 2.15. France 31 2.16. England 32 2.17. Japan 32 2.18. Meiji reforms 33 2.19. India 34 2.20. Norway 34 2.21. Australia, Canada, New Zealand 35 Getting Ready to Learn 94 Mighty Motivation 95 5. Factors Affecting Early Childhood Development 95 Improper Speech and Language Development 95 Parental Interactions 95 Learning Environment 96 Health 96 Social Interaction 96 II. SOCIALIZATION AND EDUCATION 96 1. Education and culture 97 2. Education and social stratification 98 3. Social Change and Education 107 Part Five: COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 111 Meaning of education 111 The Meaning of Comparative Education 112 The Scope and purpose of Comparative Education 114 The Purpose of Comparative Education 115 Need for learning comparative education at undergraduate level include: 116 Approaches to studying comparative education 117 Historical Background 117 Factors responsible for increased interest in the study of Comparative Education 119 First phase 120 Second Phase 120 Third Phase 121 Approaches to the Study of Comparative Education 121 Thematic or Problem Approach 121 Case Study Approach 122 Area Study Approach 122 Historical Approach 123 Descriptive Approach 123 International Approach 123 Gastronomic Approach 124 The Field Study Approach 124 The Philosophical Approach 125 Determinants of National Education System 126 Language Factor 127 The Geographical Factor 127 The Economic Factor 127 The Historical Factor 128 The Religious Factor 128 The Political Factor 128 The Social Factor 129 The Ethnic or Racial Factor 129 The Qualities of a Good Educational Comparativist 130 Objectivity 130 Visiting other Countries 130 Having Interest 130 Having Good Qualification 131 1. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS OF SELECTED COUNTRIES 131 Rwanda System of Education 131 UGANDA’S EDUCATION SYSTEM: EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN UGANDA 144 Primary Education 144 Middle Education 144 Secondary Education 145 Vocational Education 145 Tertiary Education 145 Primary education 145 Secondary education 147 International Schools 149 Post-secondary education 149 Government universities 150 Religious-affiliated universities 150 Private secular universities 151 Public technical colleges 151 Private technical colleges 151 Music Schools 151 Northern Uganda 152 EDUCATION SYSTEM IN TANZANIA 152 Primary Education 153 Middle Education 153 Secondary Education 153 Vocational Education 153 Tertiary Education 153 EDUCATION SYSTEM IN ENGLAND AND WALES (UK) 154 Primary Education 154 Secondary Education 155 Further Education 155 Higher Education 155 EDUCATION SYSTEM IN USA 155 Part One: The Concept of Education Etymologically, Education is derived from the Latin word “educare” which means “to bring up” or “ to raise”, in a sense, to nourish. It is also related to the verb “educere” which means “to lead out” or “to draw out”. Education is about “to draw out” something and not “to put in” something. The word education is derived from two Latin words “e”: out of and “duco”: to lead. Education therefore means to lead out or draw out the best in the man. Education can be defined as a process to develop what is innate in the child. Education implies growth from within rather than imposition from without. Education is regarded as equivalent to “instruction” imparted in a school or college Education is believed to begin with the entrance of the child to a school and ends with his departure from the university. The amount of education is measured in terms of the number and the grades of examination passed by the child/learner The educator is there to inculcate certain habits, attitudes, or influence, in the learner In the narrow sense, Education is mostly limited to classroom teaching of readymade materials. Education is a lifelong process: I starts with the conception and ends with the death It includes all the influences which act upon individual during his passage from the cradle/birth to the grave In a broad sense There are various sources of education: School, home, church, playground, etc. Education as a process can also be subdivided into non-formal education, informal education and formal education Formal education is both structured and regular. This type of education is realized within an organized structure and according to a determined program of activities or schedule. It takes the form of schooling , tuition and instruction It offered and taken up within teaching and learning institutions like schools, colleges and universities. Both the learner and the teacher deliberately engage themselves in the process of education with predetermined objective in view. Informal education: Both non-structured and non-regular, it refers to education which is realized haphazardly in life. It neither respects any structure nor follows any program of activities or timetable. It may occur, for instance, on occasions such as those of personal reading, inter-individual chats, or any other diverse events. It is not pre-planned and deliberate Non-formal education: Structured but not regular, it refers to education that is organized and carried out in occurrences such as seminars and workshops, conferences, colloquia, open schools, open universities, and the like. Non-formal education is supplementary or parallel to formal education Education is also sometimes considered as being a result/product of the above-evoked process E.g.: Such person has got a ‘solid education’ Generally, According to David (1981), education is a deliberate attempt to acquire and transmit the accumulated worthwhile skills, attitudes, knowledge and understanding from one human generation to the next. Oxford Advanced Dictionary defines education as “the process of acquiring and developing knowledge, skills and attitudes.” Education can be variedly defined depending on the purpose it is meant to serve and the discipline in perspective. In Sociology, education can be simply explained as an activity which goes on in a society where its aims and methods depend on the nature of the society in which it takes place. It is to make an individual understand the new society growing up around him of which he is an essential member. Education in the specific term is a means of making individuals understand their society and its structures. This will assist such individuals to open up for them a way of creating meaning out of their environment and relationships with other individuals in the realm of language acquisition and thought to classify and provide meaning to things, ideas and events. A dictum goes thus; an educated man is positive in character and constructive at thinking. This means that education is to provide well behaved individuals in the society and persons who have the ability to analyze and organize ideas to be able to contribute meaningfully towards the development of the society in which they live. Education in any society is to help transmit to the young the culture of that society. In performing this noble function, the parents, the teachers and other members of the society contribute. It invariably means that every member of the society has the statutory function to transmit knowledge for the survival of individuals. The home transmit informal education, the school delivers formal education while the open society transmit non-formal education. It is unavoidably possible to live in any society without one form of education or the other. Hence, education is a veritable tool for human growth and development. Education itself is as old as a paramount tool of sustainable development in any given society. Basic education for instance helps reduce poverty by increasing the productivity of the poor, increasing fertility and improving health, and equipping people with the skills they need to participate fully in the economy and in society. With education, poverty is generally reduced as the labor force becomes more educated and is absorbed into the modern industrial sector. Investment in education therefore contributes to the accumulation of human capital, which is essential for higher incomes and sustained economic growth. Education is for development of both the individual the country, and that is why at the heart of every country’s education lies the curriculum- which determines what will be taught in the schools, what textbooks and other resources are available, what will be in the examination, what criteria will be used to evaluate the schools and how the implementers of the curriculum that will help in addressing the manpower needs and facilitate both development of the individual in particular and that of the country in general. Secondary education is an important bridge in the education of the serving as a link between primary and higher education. It is at secondary level that the individual students begin forming ideas about their future careers. Therefore, there is a big relationship between the curriculum and assessment at this level. Apart from education being a tool for both human and society development, it has in recent times been conceived as a supermarket product which must be available to all shoppers no matter their tastes, digestion rate and stomach size (Dada, 2010). The development of any hinges on her education philosophy. Hence education is described as instrument par excellence in any national development (Olatunde et al), of values and attitudes for his/her survival in a competitive environment. Education is to enhance the acquisition of appropriate knowledge and skills and the development of mental, physical and social abilities and competences in the learners so that they could loyally live and contribute to the development of their nations and the world at large. Education is milestone of every type of development; education provides all knowledge to do any work in a systematic way. With education develops its economy and believe in social community. Education develops the personality of the youth of nation. Education makes people perfect by providing large numbers of skills. Education creates awareness in the population that makes it self-reliance and self-dependent. Education has the power to create stability and quality in different regions, caste people. Education give major things to the nation’s youth: There is no doubt that education has a significant role to play in the development of African nations. Whether development is defined in terms of growth in industrialization, social and economic advancement, or cultural sophistication, education is a key. At the micro-social level, there is a link between education and personal health, well-being and gratification. Better educated families drink cleaner water, tend to avoid risky lifestyles like over-indulgence in drugs and alcohol, eat a balanced diet, and general try to live a better life. Education has enhanced their literacy and provided training to prepare them for the job market. At the policy levels, educated leaders have played their part in creating instructions, amenities and welfare facilities that enhance people’s life styles. Their planners have also worked towards establishing blueprints that aim to spur growth in their economies. Before we can say anything about comparative education one may ask him/herself why we compare ourselves with others. Various people tried to give out some answers to this question but we shall be focusing on ideas of some them. Deepak Chopra, Alternative & Complementary Medicine, answered The ego wants to be number one; therefore, it has no choice but to get caught up in a neverending game of comparing itself to others. Like all ingrained habits, this one is hard to break. Our style of suffering is learned from others. To the extent that you feel stoic or weak, in control or victimized, desperate or hopeful, you are adhering to reactions set down by someone else. Deviating from their pattern feels strange, even threatening. In my friend's case, he broke out of a pattern of grief only when he realized that i Part Two: HISTORY OF EDUCATION (The main content of this Chapter has been adapted from Wikipedia, retrieved on 5th March 2017) The systematic provision of learning techniques to most children, such as literacy, has been a development of the last 150 or 200 years, or even last 50 years in some countries. Schools for the young have historically been supplemented with advanced training for priests, bureaucrats and specialists. Education in ancient civilization Jarvis For history/sociology… (pp.118-126) There have been times in the past (primitive societies) when society and its structures have appeared to be relatively permanent whereas in contemporary society, which is tremendously complex, both appear to be in a constant flux. Change, both social and personal, then, is a critical factor in our understanding of sociology of learning, since learning is actually about processes of change. Scheler suggested that there are seven forms of knowledge and his categorization is based on their speed of change. These are: Myth and legend – undifferentiated, primitive forms of knowledge based in religion, nature, etc… Knowledge based in natural language – everyday knowledge; Religious knowledge – more formulated dogma, etc.; Mystical knowledge; Philosophical – metaphysical knowledge; Mathematical knowledge– mathematics and the natural sciences; Technological knowledge In the primitive society the structures change more slowly and the social actors change their position within it more rapidly, due to the ageing process, and the cultural forms of knowledge predominate; in modern society; that is society that emerged after the Reformation and the Industrial Revolution, both forms of knowledge occurred and were treated as almost equally valid, so that individuals had to learn the more formal and artificial forms of knowledge through education early in their lives, but the way individuals changed their position in society was still celebrated; in late modern society, where the more artificial forms of knowledge predominate, formal school education is insufficient and society changes very rapidly. Primitive society is local, tribal and pre-industrial. Its forms of knowledge are cultural and they are legitimated either by claims of revelation, or by the priestly or priest-kingly, social hierarchy. Since the knowledge is cultural and changes slowly, it can be regarded as truth. Moreover, this cultural knowledge also legitimated the authority of the social and religious hierarchy, and hence the ‘god-king’ concept emerged. The social structure are fixed by decree and children are initially socialized into their position within them, but all the society’s members continue to learn – maintenance learning-. But as individuals age they change their position within the static social structures also has to change. Most primitive societies recognize this transition and have ‘rites de passage’ which have three stages: a leaving of the initial social status, a period of liminality (betwixt and between) in which innovative learning occurs, and a ritual of reincorporation into the new status. These times of transition for instance, are birth, from child to adult, single to married, married to widowhood, and death. During the period of liminality the tribe is able to prepare itself for the change, but more significantly, it prepares those who were changing their status for their new role – in other words it is a time of learning. The luminal period is one of being prepared for the new status and role in society, which in its turn reinforces the social structures themselves: The wisdom (mana) that is imparted in sacred liminality is not just an aggregate of words and sentences; it has ontological value, it refashions the very being of the neophyite. The neophyte in liminality must be tabula rasa, a blank sheet, on which is inscribed the knowledge and wisdom of the group, in those respects that pertain to the new status. The humiliation that the neophytes undergo is a symbolic destruction of the previous status and a preparation for their new position. 2.1. The development of writing Starting in about 3500 B.C., various writing systems developed in ancient civilizations around the world. In Egypt fully developed hieroglyphs were in use at Abydos as early as 3400 B.C. oldest known alphabet was developed in central Egypt around 2000 B.C. from a hieroglyphic prototype. One hieroglyphic script was used on stone monuments, other cursive scripts were used for writing in ink on papyrus, a flexible, paper-like material, made from the stems of reeds that grow in marshes and beside rivers such as the River Nile. The Phoenician writing system was adapted from the Proto-Canaanite script in around the 11th century BC, which in turn borrowed ideas from Egyptian hieroglyphics. This script was adapted by the Greeks. A variant of the early Greek alphabet gave rise to the Etruscan alphabet, and its own descendants, such as the Latin alphabet. Other descendants from the Greek alphabet include the Cyrillic script, used to write Russian, among others. The Phoenician system was also adapted into the Aramaic script, from which the Hebrew script and also that of Arabic are descended. In China, the early oracle bone script has survived on tens of thousands of oracle bones dating from around 1400-1200 B.C. in the Shang Dynasty. Out of more than 2500 written characters in use in China in about 1200 BC, as many as 1400 are identifiable as the source of later standard Chinese characters. Of several pre-Columbian scripts in Mesoamerica, the one that appears to have been best developed, and the one to be deciphered the most, is the Maya script. The earliest inscriptions which are identifiably Maya date to the 3rd century B.C., and writing was in continuous use until shortly after the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores in the 16th century. In Chinese civilization, in school the children were not allowed to scribble. They were not to write slanted or sloppy charterers . Other surfaces used for early writing include wax-covered writing boards (used, as well as clay tablets, by the Assyrians), sheets or strips of bark from trees (in Indonesia, Tibet and the Americas), the thick palm-like leaves of a particular tree, the leaves then punctured with a hole and stacked together like the pages of a book (these writings in India and South east Asia include Buddhist scriptures and Sanskrit literature), parchment, made of goatskin that had been soaked and scraped to remove hair, which was used from at least the 2nd century B.C., vellum, made from calfskin, and wax tablets which could be wiped clean to provide a fresh surface (in the Roman times). 2.2. The Middle East In what became Mesopotamia, the early logographic system of cuneiform script took many years to master. Thus only a limited number of individuals were hired as scribes to be trained in its reading and writing. Only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals such as scribes, physicians, and temple administrators, were schooled. Most boys were taught their father's trade or were apprenticed to learn a trade. Girls stayed at home with their mothers to learn housekeeping and cooking, and to look after the younger children. Later, when a syllabic script became more widespread, more of the Mesopotamian population became literate. Later still in Babylonian times there were libraries in most towns and temples; an old Sumerian proverb averred that "he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn." There arose a whole social class of scribes, mostly employed in agriculture, but some as personal secretaries or lawyers. Women as well as men learned to read and write, and for the Semitic Babylonians, this involved knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language, and a complicated and extensive syllabary. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. Massive archives of texts were recovered from the archaeological contexts of Old Babylonian scribal schools, through which literacy was disseminated. The Epic of Gilgamesh, an epic poem from Ancient Mesopotamia is among the earliest known works of literary fiction. The earliest Sumerian versions of the epic date from as early as the Third Dynasty of Ur (2150-2000 BC) (Dalley 1989: 41-42). Ashurbanipal (685 – c. 627 BC), a king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, was proud of his scribal education. His youthful scholarly pursuits included oil divination, mathematics, reading and writing as well as the usual horsemanship, hunting, chariotry, soldierliness, craftsmanship, and royal decorum. During his reign he collected cuneiform texts from all over Mesopotamia, and especially Babylonia, in the library in Nineveh, the first systematically organized library in the ancient Middle East, which survives in part today. In ancient Egypt, literacy was concentrated among an educated elite of scribes. Only people from certain backgrounds were allowed to train to become scribes, in the service of temple, pharaonic, and military authorities. The hieroglyph system was always difficult to learn, but in later centuries was purposely made even more so, as this preserved the scribes' status. The rate of literacy in Pharaonic Egypt during most periods from the third to first millennium BC has been estimated at not more than one percent, or between one half of one percent and one percent. In ancient Israel the Torah (the fundamental religious text) includes commands to read, learn, teach and write the Torah, thus requiring literacy and study. In 64 AD the high priest caused schools to be opened . Emphasis was placed on developing good memory skills in addition to comprehension oral repetition. For details of the subjects taught, see History of education in ancient Israel and Judah. Although girls were not provided with formal education in the yeshivah, they were required to know a large part of the subject areas to prepare them to maintain the home after marriage, and to educate the children before the age of seven. Despite this schooling system, it would seem that many children did not learn to read and write, because it has been estimated that "at least ninety percent of the Jewish population of Roman Palestine [in the first centuries AD] could merely write their own name or not write and read at all", or that the literacy rate was about 3 percent. 2.3. Indian Subcontinent In ancient India, during the Vedic period from about 1500 BC to 600 BC, most education was based on the Veda (hymns, formulas, and incantations, recited or chanted by priests of a preHindu tradition) and later Hindu texts and scriptures. Vedic education included: proper pronunciation and recitation of the Veda, the rules of sacrifice, grammar and derivation, composition, versification and meter, understanding of secrets of nature, reasoning including logic, the sciences, and the skills necessary for an occupation. Some medical knowledge existed and was taught. There is mention in the Veda of herbal medicines for various conditions or diseases, including fever, cough, baldness, snake bite and others. Education, at first freely available in Vedic society, became over time more rigid and restricted as the social systems dictated that only those of meritorious lineage be allowed to study the scriptures, originally based on occupation, evolved, with the Brahman (priests) being the most privileged of the castes, followed by Kshatriya who could also wear the sacred thread and gain access to Vedic education. The Brahmans were given priority even over Kshatriya as they would dedicate their whole lives to such studies. The oldest of the Upanishads - another part of Hindu scriptures - date from around 500 BC. These texts encouraged an exploratory learning process where teachers and students were cotravellers in a search for truth. The teaching methods used reasoning and questioning. Nothing was labeled as the final answer. The Gurukul system of education supported traditional Hindu residential schools of learning; typically the teacher's house or a monastery. Education was free, but students from well-to-do families paid "Gurudakshina," a voluntary contribution after the completion of their studies. At the Gurukuls, the teacher imparted knowledge of Religion, Scriptures, Philosophy, Literature, Warfare, Statecraft, Medicine, Astrology and History. The corpus of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as technical scientific, philosophical and generally Hindu religious texts, though many central texts of Buddhism and Jainism have also been composed in Sanskrit. Two epic poems formed part of ancient Indian education. The Mahabharata, part of which may date back to the 8th century BC,[21] discusses human goals (purpose, pleasure, duty, and liberation), attempting to explain the relationship of the individual to society and the world (the nature of the 'Self') and the workings of karma. The other epic poem, Ramayana, is shorter, although it has 24,000 verses. It is thought to have been compiled between about 400 BC and 200 AD. The epic explores themes of human existence and the concept of dharma. An early center of learning in India dating back to the 5th century BC was Taxila (also known as Takshashila), which taught the three Vedas and the eighteen accomplishments. It was an important Vedic/Hindu and Buddhist centre of learning from the 6th century BC to the 5th century AD. 2.4. China Main articles: History of education in China and History of education in Taiwan During the Zhou Dynasty (1045 BC to 256 BC), there were five national schools in the capital city, Pi Yong (an imperial school, located in a central location) and four other schools for the aristocrats and nobility, including Shang Xiang. The schools mainly taught the Six Arts: rites, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and mathematics. According to the Book of Rituals, at age twelve, boys learned arts related to ritual (i.e. music and dance) and when older, archery and chariot driving. Girls learned ritual, correct deportment, silk production and weaving. It was during the Zhou Dynasty that the origins of native Chinese philosophy also developed. Confucius (551 BC – 479 BC) founder of Confucianism, was a Chinese philosopher who made a great impact on later generations of Chinese, and on the curriculum of the Chinese educational system for much of the following 2000 years. Later, during the Ch'in dynasty (246-207 BC), a hierarchy of officials was set up to provide central control over the outlying areas of the empire. To enter this hierarchy, both literacy and knowledge of the increasing body of philosophy was required: "....the content of the educational process was designed not to engender functionally specific skills but rather to produce morally enlightened and cultivated generalists". During the Han Dynasty (206 BC- 221 AD), boys were thought ready at age seven to start learning basic skills in reading, writing and calculation. In 124 BC, the Emperor Wudi established the Imperial Academy, the curriculum of which was the Five Classics of Confucius. By the end of the Han Dynasty (220 AD) the Academy enrolled more than 30,000 students, boys between the ages of fourteen and seventeen years. However education through this period was a luxury. The Nine rank system was a civil service nomination system during the Three Kingdoms (220280 AD) and the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420-589 AD) in China. Theoretically, local government authorities were given the task of selecting talented candidates, then categorizing them into nine grades depending on their abilities. In practice, however, only the rich and powerful would be selected. The Nine Rank System was eventually superseded by the Imperial examination system for the civil service in the Sui Dynasty (581-618 AD) 2.5. Greece and Rome Main articles: Education in ancient Greece and Education in ancient Rome In the city-states of ancient Greece, most education was private, except in Sparta. For example, in Athens, during the 5th and 4th century BC, aside from two years military training, the state played little part in schooling. Anyone could open a school and decide the curriculum. Parents could choose a school offering the subjects they wanted their children to learn, at a monthly fee they could afford. Most parents, even the poor, sent their sons to schools for at least a few years, and if they could afford it from around the age of seven until fourteen, learning gymnastics (including athletics, sport and wrestling), music (including poetry, drama and history) and literacy. Girls rarely received formal education. At writing school, the youngest students learned the alphabet by song, then later by copying the shapes of letters with a stylus on a waxed wooden tablet. After some schooling, the sons of poor or middle-class families often learnt a trade by apprenticeship, whether with their father or another tradesman. By around 350 BC, it was common for children at schools in Athens to also study various arts such as drawing, painting, and sculpture. The richest students continued their education by studying with sophists, from whom they could learn subjects such as rhetoric, mathematics, geography, natural history, politics, and logic. Some of Athens' greatest schools of higher education included the Lyceum (the so-called Peripatetic school founded by Aristotle of Stageira) and the Platonic Academy (founded by Plato of Athens). The education system of the wealthy ancient Greeks is also called Paideia. In the subsequent Roman empire, Greek was the primary language of science. Advanced scientific research and teaching was mainly carried on in the Hellenistic side of the Roman empire, in Greek. The education system in the Greek city-state of Sparta was entirely different, designed to create warriors with complete obedience, courage, and physical perfection. At the age of seven, boys were taken away from their homes to live in school dormitories or military barracks. There they were taught sports, endurance and fighting, and little else, with harsh discipline. Most of the population was illiterate. The first schools in Ancient Rome arose by the middle of the 4th century BC. These schools were concerned with the basic socialization and rudimentary education of young Roman children. The literacy rate in the 3rd century BC has been estimated as around one percent to two percent. There are very few primary sources or accounts of Roman educational process until the 2nd century BC, during which there was a proliferation of private schools in Rome. At the height of the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire, the Roman educational system gradually found its final form. Formal schools were established, which served paying students (very little in the way of free public education as we know it can be found). Normally, both boys and girls were educated, though not necessarily together. In a system much like the one that predominates in the modern world, the Roman education system that developed arranged schools in tiers. The educator Quintilian recognized the importance of starting education as early as possible, noting that "memory … not only exists even in small children, but is specially retentive at that age". A Roman student would progress through schools just as a student today might go from elementary school to middle school, then to high school, and finally college. Progression depended more on ability than age with great emphasis being placed upon a student's ingenium or inborn "gift" for learning, and a more tacit emphasis on a student's ability to afford high-level education. Only the Roman elite would expect a complete formal education. A tradesman or farmer would expect to pick up most of his vocational skills on the job. Higher education in Rome was more of a status symbol than a practical concern. Literacy rates in the Greco-Roman world were seldom more than 20 percent; averaging perhaps not much above 10 percent in the Roman empire, though with wide regional variations, probably never rising above 5 percent in the western provinces. The literate in classical Greece did not much exceed 5 percent of the population. 2.6. Formal education in the Middle Ages (500–1600 AD) Europe During the Early Middle Ages, the monasteries of the Roman Catholic Church were the centres of education and literacy, preserving the Church's selection from Latin learning and maintaining the art of writing. Prior to their formal establishment, many medieval universities were run for hundreds of years as Christian monastic schools (Scholae monasticae), in which monks taught classes, and later as cathedral schools; evidence of these immediate forerunners of the later university at many places dates back to the early 6th century. The first medieval institutions generally considered to be universities were established in Italy, France, and England in the late 11th and the 12th centuries for the study of arts, law, medicine, and theology.[1] These universities evolved from much older Christian cathedral schools and monastic schools, and it is difficult to define the date on which they became true universities, although the lists of studia generalia for higher education in Europe held by the Vatican are a useful guide. Students in the twelfth-century were very proud of the master whom they studied under. They were not very concerned with telling others the place or region where they received their education. Even now when scholars cite schools with distinctive doctrines, they use group names to describe the school rather than its geographical location. Those who studied under Robert of Melun were called the Meludinenses. These people did not study in Melun, but in Paris, and were given the group name of their master. Citizens in the twelfth-century became very interested in learning the rare and difficult skills masters could provide. Ireland became known as the island of saints and scholars. Monasteries were built all over Ireland and these became centres of great learning (see Celtic Church). Northumbria was famed as a centre of religious learning and arts. Initially the kingdom was evangelized by monks from the Celtic Church, which led to a flowering of monastic life, and Northumbria played an important role in the formation of Insular art, a unique style combining Anglo-Saxon, Celtic, Byzantine and other elements. After the Synod of Whitby in 664 AD, Roman church practices officially replaced the Celtic ones but the influence of the Anglo-Celtic style continued, the most famous examples of this being the Lindisfarne Gospels. The Venerable Bede (673-735) wrote his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in 731) in a Northumbrian monastery, and much of it focuses on the kingdom. During the reign of Charlemagne, King of the Franks from 768 – 814 AD, whose empire united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Romans, there was a flowering of literature, art, and architecture known as the Carolingian Renaissance. Brought into contact with the culture and learning of other countries through his vast conquests, Charlemagne greatly increased the provision of monastic schools and scriptoria (centres for book-copying) in Francia. Most of the surviving works of classical Latin were copied and preserved by Carolingian scholars. Charlemagne took a serious interest in scholarship, promoting the liberal arts at the court, ordering that his children and grandchildren be well-educated, and even studying himself under the tutelage of Paul the Deacon, from whom he learned grammar, Alcuin, with whom he studied rhetoric, dialect and astronomy (he was particularly interested in the movements of the stars), and Einhard, who assisted him in his studies of arithmetic. The English monk Alcuin was invited to Charlemagne's court at Aachen, and brought with him the precise classical Latin education that was available in the monasteries of Northumbria. The return of this Latin proficiency to the kingdom of the Franks is regarded as an important step in the development of mediaeval Latin. Charlemagne's chancery made use of a type of script currently known as Carolingian minuscule, providing a common writing style that allowed for communication across most of Europe. After the decline of the Carolingian dynasty, the rise of the Saxon Dynasty in Germany was accompanied by the Ottonian Renaissance. Cambridge and many other universities were founded at this time. Cathedral schools and monasteries remained important throughout the Middle Ages; at the Third Lateran Council of 1179 the Church mandated that priests provide the opportunity of a free education to their flocks, and the 12th and 13th century renascence known as bhata and Brahmagupta—the scholars accumulated a great collection of knowledge in the world, and built on it through their own discoveries. The House was an unrivalled centre for the study of humanities and for sciences, including mathematics, astronomy, medicine, chemistry, zoology and geography. Baghdad was known as the world's richest city and centre for intellectual development of the time, and had a population of over a million, the largest in its time. The Islamic mosque school (Madrasah) taught the Quran in Arabic and did not at all resemble the medieval European universities. In the 9th century, Bimaristan medical schools were formed in the medieval Islamic world, where medical diplomas were issued to students of Islamic medicine who were qualified to be a practicing Doctor of Medicine. Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in 975, was a Jami'ah ("university" in Arabic) which offered a variety of post-graduate degrees, had a Madrasah and theological seminary, and taught Islamic law, Islamic jurisprudence, Arabic grammar, Islamic astronomy, early Islamic philosophy and logic in Islamic philosophy. Under the Ottoman Empire, the towns of Bursa and Edirne became major centers of learning. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the town of Timbuktu in the West African nation of Mali became an Islamic centre of learning with students coming from as far away as the Middle East. The town was home to the prestigious Sankore University and other madrasas. The primary focus of these schools was the teaching of the Qur'an, although broader instruction in fields such as logic, astronomy, and history also took place. Over time, there was a great accumulation of manuscripts in the area and an estimated 100,000 or more manuscripts, some of them dated from pre-Islamic times and 12th century, are kept by the great families from the town.[52] Their contents are didactic, especially in the subjects of astronomy, music, and botany. More than 18,000 manuscripts have been collected by the Ahmed Baba centre. 2.8. China Main articles: History of education in China and History of education in Taiwan Although there are more than 40,000 Chinese characters in written Chinese, many are rarely used. Studies have shown that full literacy in the Chinese language requires a knowledge of only between three and four thousand characters. In China, three oral texts were used to teach children by rote memorization the written characters of their language and the basics of Confucian thought. The Thousand Character Classic, a Chinese poem originating in the 6th century, was used for more than a millennium as a primer for teaching Chinese characters to children. The poem is composed of 250 phrases of four characters each, thus containing exactly one thousand unique characters, and was sung in the same way that children learning the Latin alphabet may use the "alphabet song". Later, children also learn the Hundred Family Surnames, a rhyming poem in lines of eight characters composed in the early Song Dynasty (i.e. in about the 11th century) which actually listed more than four hundred of the common surnames in ancient China. From around the 13th century until the latter part of the 19th century, the Three Character Classic, which is an embodiment of Confucian thought suitable for teaching to young children, served as a child's first formal education at home. The text is written in triplets of characters for easy memorization. With illiteracy common for most people at the time, the oral tradition of reciting the classic ensured its popularity and survival through the centuries. With the short and simple text arranged in three-character verses, children learned many common characters, grammar structures, elements of Chinese history and the basis of Confucian morality. After learning Chinese characters, students wishing to ascend in the social hierarchy needed to study the Chinese classic texts. The early Chinese state depended upon literate, educated officials for operation of the empire. In 605 AD, during the Sui Dynasty, for the first time, an examination system was explicitly instituted for a category of local talents. The merit-based imperial examination system for evaluating and selecting officials gave rise to schools that taught the Chinese classic texts and continued in use for 1,300 years, until the end the Qing Dynasty, being abolished in 1911 in favour of Western education methods. The core of the curriculum for the imperial civil service examinations from the mid-12th century onwards was the Four Books, representing a foundational introduction to Confucianism. Theoretically, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination, although under some dynasties members of the merchant class were excluded. In reality, since the process of studying for the examination tended to be time-consuming and costly (if tutors were hired), most of the candidates came from the numerically small but relatively wealthy land-owning gentry. However, there are vast numbers of examples in Chinese history in which individuals moved from a low social status to political prominence through success in imperial examination. Under some dynasties the imperial examinations were abolished and official posts were simply sold, which increased corruption and reduced morale. In the period preceding 1040–1050 AD, prefectural schools had been neglected by the state and left to the devices of wealthy patrons who provided private finances. The chancellor of China at that time, Fan Zhongyan, issued an edict (law) that would have used a combination of government funding and private financing to restore and rebuild all prefectural schools that had fallen into disuse and abandoned. He also attempted to restore all county-level schools in the same manner, but did not designate where funds for the effort would be formally acquired and the decree was not taken seriously until a later period. Fan's trend of government funding for education set in motion the movement of public schools that eclipsed private academies, which would not be officially reversed until the mid-13th century. 2.9. India The first millennium and the few centuries preceding it saw the flourishing of higher education at Nalanda, Takshashila University, Ujjain, & Vikramshila Universities. Amongst the subjects taught were Art, Architecture, Painting, Logic, mathematics, Grammar, Philosophy, Astronomy, Literature, Buddhism, Hinduism, Arthashastra (Economics & Politics), Law, and Medicine. Each university specialized in a particular field of study. Takshila specialized in the study of medicine, while Ujjain laid emphasis on astronomy. Nalanda, being the biggest centre, handled all branches of knowledge, and housed up to 10,000 students at its peak. Vikramashila Mahavihara, another important center of Buddhist learning in India, was established by King Dharmapala (783 to 820) in response to a supposed decline in the quality of scholarship at Nālandā. Indigenous education was widespread in India in the 18th century, with a school for every temple, mosque or village in most regions of the country. The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion. The schools were attended by students representative of all classes of society. 2.10. Japan The history of education in Japan dates back at least to the 6th century, when Chinese learning was introduced at the Yamato court. Foreign civilizations have often provided new ideas for the development of Japan's own culture. Chinese teachings and ideas flowed into Japan from the sixth to the 9th century. Along with the introduction of Buddhism came the Chinese system of writing and its literary tradition, and Confucianism. By the 9th century, Heian-kyo (today's Kyoto), the imperial capital, had five institutions of higher learning, and during the remainder of the Heian period, other schools were established by the nobility and the imperial court. During the medieval period (1185-1600), Zen Buddhist monasteries were especially important centers of learning, and the Ashikaga School, Ashikaga Gakko, flourished in the 15th century as a center of higher learning. 2.11. Central and South American civilizations Aztec Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political and military dominance over large parts of Mesoamerica in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, a period referred to as the Late postClassic period in Mesoamerican chronology. Until the age of fourteen, the education of children was in the hands of their parents, but supervised by the authorities of their calpōlli. Part of this education involved learning a collection of sayings, called huēhuetlàtolli ("sayings of the old"), that embodied the Aztecs' ideals. Judged by their language, most of the huēhuetlàtolli seemed to have evolved over several centuries, predating the Aztecs and most likely adopted from other Nahua cultures. At 15, all boys and girls went to school. The Mexica, one of the Aztec groups, were one of the first people in the world to have mandatory education for nearly all children, regardless of gender, rank, or station.There were two types of schools: the telpochcalli, for practical and military studies, and the calmecac, for advanced learning in writing, astronomy, statesmanship, theology, and other areas. The two institutions seem to be common to the Nahua people, leading some experts to suggest that they are older than the Aztec culture. Aztec teachers (tlatimine) propounded a spartan regime of education with the purpose of forming a stoical people. Girls were educated in the crafts of home and child raising. They were not taught to read or write. All women were taught to be involved in religion; there are paintings of women presiding over religious ceremonies, but there are no references to female priests. 2.12. Inca Inca education during the time of the Inca Empire in the 15th and 16th centuries was divided into two principal spheres: education for the upper classes and education for the general population. The royal classes and a few specially chosen individuals from the provinces of the Empire were formally educated by the Amautas (wise men), while the general population learned knowledge and skills from their immediate forebears. The Amautas constituted a special class of wise men similar to the bards of Great Britain. They included illustrious philosophers, poets, and priests who kept the oral histories of the Incas alive by imparting the knowledge of their culture, history, customs and traditions throughout the kingdom. Considered the most highly educated and respected men in the Empire, the Amautas were largely entrusted with educating those of royal blood, as well as other young members of conquered cultures specially chosen to administer the regions. Thus, education throughout the territories of the Incas was socially discriminatory, most people not receiving the formal education that royalty received. The official language of the empire was Quechua, although dozens if not hundreds of local languages were spoken. The Amautas did ensure that the general population learn Quechua as the language of the Empire, much in the same way the Romans promoted Latin throughout Europe; however, this was done more for political reasons than educational ones. 2.13. AFTER THE 15TH CENTURY 2.14. Europe overview Primary School in "open air". Teacher with class, from the outskirts of Bucharest, around 1842. Modern systems of education in Europe derive their origins from the schools of the High Middle Ages. Most schools during this era were founded upon religious principles with the primary purpose of training the clergy. Many of the earliest universities, such as the U

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