Mewtee, 4157 Ranaka Street, Randfontein (2025)

03/12/2025

Fossil hunters find tracks of animals from about 3 million years ago – a first in South Africa.

South Africa is well known for its fossil heritage, a record of plants and animals that tells us what the world was like long ago.

Over the past 15 years, our research group at the African Centre for Coastal Palaeoscience at Nelson Mandela University has studied some of these ancient species by examining the tracks and traces they left during the Pleistocene Epoch (a period from about 1.8 million years ago to 11,700 years ago, sometimes known as the “Ice Ages”). We have identified more than 350 vertebrate tracksites along the coast from this time. These animals left their tracks and traces in sandy surfaces that hardened into rock over time. The oldest fossil track we’ve found is around 400,000 years old.

All this time we were aware that there might be more, even older trace fossils to find further inland. We knew that up to 30km inland there were cemented dunes formed from wind-blown sand, probably around 3 million years old. These dunes, which are now rock, are known as the Wankoe Formation.

However, there were problems with finding any fossils there. There seemed to be a relatively limited number of suitable rock outcrops, showing what used to be dune surfaces. And often those that we did find were eroded and calcified: good for finding caves and mineral formations (like stalagmites), but not for finding tracks – or so it seemed. In addition, much of the Wankoe Formation is on private property, and permission would be needed to access potential sites.

We realised that to find any fossil traces we would have to focus on the areas where the original rock layers were well preserved and visible. Then one of our team members, Given Banda, identified what appeared to be a trackway on an inland surface near his home community. This was a spur to action, and next, when staying in the Grootbos Private Nature Reserve to research nearby coastal tracks, we chanced upon more inland track-like features. A more thorough reconnaissance in the reserve followed, and the more we looked, the more tracks we found, including one that’s certainly a trackway (see photo above).

The results of our findings were recently published.

No vertebrate tracks had previously been identified in the Wankoe Formation. We have found that the formation is rich in fossils and that vertebrate tracks are common there. Furthermore, these seem to be the first recorded Pliocene vertebrate tracks described from southern Africa. The Pliocene was an epoch from about 5.3 million to 2.6 million years ago. These findings therefore add to what we know about ancient environments.

New treasure trove of fossil tracks and traces

The Wankoe Formation track discoveries are important for three main reasons:

they might tell us more about body fossils

we might find traces of human ancestor species

the tracks are raised rather than indented, which is rare.

Firstly, there is a wonderful Pliocene body fossil site just a few hundred kilometres away. Known as Langebaanweg or, more popularly, the West Coast Fossil Park, the site boasts a vast array of extinct creatures. The body fossil record and trace fossil (ichnological record can not only complement each other, but have the potential to yield new findings that constructively inform and enrich each other.

For example, on the coast we have found trackways of giraffe and giant tortoises, that were not known to inhabit the region based on the body fossil record. We hope that we can complement the body fossil record with our ichnological findings. Already we have identified a tracksite that suggests a possible wolverine trackmaker, consistent with the finding of an extinct wolverine at Langebaanweg.

Secondly, when we started work on the younger deposits on the coast 15 years ago, we knew that we needed to be on the lookout for hominin tracksites, as we were aware that ancestral hominins had been there at the time. Since then, we have found more than 20 such sites. These make up by far the largest archive of hominin tracksites more than 40,000 years old in the world.

We can try to apply similar thinking to our Pliocene discoveries inland from the coast.

Pliocene deposits are not encountered that often in Africa, and these Western Cape examples seem to be among the only ones described from southern Africa. The Laetoli site in Tanzania is globally famous for its australopithecine trackways, which remain the only tracks of these possible ancestors of our Homo genus from the Pliocene. They are also the oldest unequivocal tracks of their kind in the world.

While we have not yet found tracks that are conclusively of primate origin in the Wankoe Formation, and we do not know precisely when australopithecines may have first appeared in this region, we are aware of the potential, and need to keep exploring.

Thirdly, the tracks we are finding are different, and are special in their own right. Many of them are “pedestalled”, meaning that instead of forming hollows, they are raised above the surface.

The principle of their origin can easily be replicated on a modern dune surface, provided that the sand is slightly moist (cohesive) and a strong wind is blowing. If you walk along such a surface, you will leave your tracks in the form of depressions. But if you return an hour later, they might be raised above the surface. This is because you will have compressed underlying layers when you made your tracks, and the wind has blown the surrounding sand away but is not strong enough to remove the compressed areas below your tracks. The same principle occurs in snow, where it is much more readily observed (see photo above).

Fossilised pedestalled tracks are globally rare, and the potential for finding more of them is intriguing.

More to find?

Our subsequent explorations have continued to deliver results, and we now realise that even rocks that have been weathered can sometimes preserve tracks, sometimes in profile. (See photo: the underlying layers have been distorted by the weight of the trackmaker.)

We have also found body fossils in the form of trees, roots and bone material embedded in these layers of wind-blown, hardened sand that require further study.

It is perhaps not surprising that the dunes that now form the Wankoe Formation contained tracks on their surfaces. However, the welcome news is that despite all the calcification and weathering that has occurred, evidence of these tracks has not been obliterated.

We now realise that if we know where to look, there will be many suitable surfaces and exposures to explore. And the possibility of finding the tracks of ancestral hominins from the Pliocene forms a new “holy grail” for our research team.

Author
Charles Helm
Research Associate, African Centre for Coastal Palaeoscience, Nelson Mandela University

Disclosure statement
Charles Helm does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

07/10/2025

South Africa’s rooibos tea: can it improve digestion?

Rooibos tea, a caffeine-free drink made from the leaves of a shrub indigenous to South Africa, is part of the country’s heritage.

The rooibos plant (Aspalathus linearis) grows in the mountainous Cederberg region of South Africa’s Western Cape province. It has been traditionally harvested and consumed as a herbal tea by the Khoisan people.

Beyond making tea, the plant has been touted for its potential health benefits. Rooibos has scientifically proven effects as an antioxidant. This is a natural substance that helps to protect your body’s cells from damage caused by harmful molecules. It’s also an anti-inflammatory: a substance that reduces inflammation (redness, swelling, and pain) in the body. It can help protect the heart and liver, regulate blood sugar and improve skin health.

Commercial cultivation of rooibos began in the early 20th century. Scientific research into its health benefits started in the 1960s, when its antioxidant properties were first reported. Since then, numerous studies have explored its ther**eutic potential.

I am a researcher focusing on the health-promoting properties of South African herbal teas, particularly rooibos and honeybush (Cyclopia spp.).

My latest research with colleagues suggests rooibos might offer powerful health benefits for the gut. The study aimed to compare the anti-inflammatory and barrier protective effects of an unfermented and fermented rooibos aqueous extract on intestinal porcine epithelial cells. We used pig because their intestines closely resemble human gut cells.

We showed that rooibos extracts made the lining of the gut stronger through its effect on proteins, and reduced inflammation.

These effects are important because stronger barriers and controlled inflammation are essential for protecting tissues like the gut from damage and disease.

Digestive (gut) disorders like irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), constipation and dyspepsia (indigestion) affect over 40% of the global population. Females are more likely to be affected (49%) than males (36.6%). These statistics show the need for increased awareness, improved diagnosis and effective management of the problem.

Gut health has become a major area of interest for anyone looking to improve their overall wellness. A growing body of evidence links poor gut health to issues like chronic inflammation, fatigue, anxiety and autoimmune disorders. And with rising interest in natural alternatives to pharmaceuticals, people are turning to diet and drinks for help.

Green and red rooibos and epithelial intestinal cells
In our study, we explored in the laboratory how different types of rooibos tea extracts affect gut cells. Our research group wanted to understand whether rooibos could protect the gut barrier, the microscopic wall of cells that acts as a bodyguard for your intestines.

This barrier keeps harmful substances out while allowing nutrients in. When it’s not working properly, a situation often referred to as a “leaky gut”, it can contribute to digestive disorders like irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and other chronic health problems.

Our study focused on two forms of rooibos:

unfermented rooibos (green), which is less processed and retains more antioxidants

fermented rooibos (red), which is more common and widely consumed.

Both kinds of tea come from the same plant, Aspalathus linearis, but the way they are processed changes their chemical composition, especially their polyphenols. These are natural compounds known for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. The main polyphenols are called aspalathin and nothofagin, and aspalathin is unique to rooibos.

The three-year study investigated the anti-inflammatory properties of rooibos extracts in intestinal gut cells of pigs. Cells were first treated with the extracts for 24 hours. Then the extracts were removed and a bacterial toxin was added for an additional 24 hours. The cells’ response was then evaluated by measuring specific markers (signs) of inflammation, and the barrier integrity of the cells was assessed to determine protective effects.

Inflammation and gut protection
Here’s what we discovered:

Fermented (red) rooibos fights inflammation best. When we triggered an inflammatory response in gut cells, similar to what happens during infection or flare-ups in conditions like inflammatory bowel disease, we found that fermented rooibos was especially effective at reducing inflammation. In fact, fermented rooibos performed as well as, or even better than, dexamethasone, a common steroid drug used to reduce inflammation in the gut.

Unfermented (green) rooibos strengthens the gut barrier. While fermented rooibos tackled inflammation, it was unfermented rooibos that best protected the gut barrier. It boosted the production of proteins that keep the barrier strong. This suggests that unfermented rooibos may help prevent “leaky gut”, protecting against the entry of harmful substances into the bloodstream.

Polyphenol differences might explain the results. We think that the different effects of the teas are linked to their polyphenol content. Unfermented rooibos contains high levels of aspalathin, a potent antioxidant that helps maintain cell health and strengthen barriers. Fermented rooibos contains different polyphenols, such as eriodictyol-glucosides, that work together with other natural antioxidants in the tea to help soothe and reduce inflammation.

While rooibos is already known to be rich in antioxidants, our study is one of the first to clearly show how different types of rooibos affect gut inflammation and the gut barrier in distinct ways. Understanding this can help people make smarter dietary choices and potentially give rooibos a role in gut-friendly therapies or functional foods.

Moving forward
Our research shows that rooibos tea, both fermented and unfermented, offers unique benefits for gut health. Fermented rooibos can reduce gut inflammation and unfermented rooibos can help maintain a healthy gut lining.

Rooibos could one day be used in gut health supplements, as natural therapies for inflammatory bowel disease, or in everyday foods designed to support digestion.

This was a laboratory-based study, so more research is needed to confirm the effects in humans. But the evidence so far is promising. And considering that rooibos is safe, affordable, and already widely consumed, it’s a low-risk addition to a healthy lifestyle.

Author
Mariska Lilly
Senior Researcher, Cape Peninsula University of Technology

Disclosure statement
Mariska Lilly receives funding for research projects from The South African Rooibos Council.

07/10/2025

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06/10/2025

Tanzania’s ruling party has crushed the opposition – the elections are a mere formality.

Tanzania has conducted regular polls since the first multiparty elections in 1995. But they have often failed to meet democratic standards. The opposition has been persistently excluded and restricted, and media freedoms and civil rights have been suppressed. This pattern has come to be identified as electoral authoritarianism.

Tanzania’s ruling party, Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM), will seek to extend its dominance on 29 October 2025. It has been in power since independence in 1961, making it one of Africa’s longest-serving ruling parties.

I have studied Tanzania’s political party dynamics for a decade and in my view CCM’s candidate, Samia Suluhu Hassan, is destined for a landslide victory after the disqualification of two major opposition parties. Samia became president following the death in office of John Magufuli in 2021.

Chama Cha Demokrasia na Maendeleo (Chadema) was disqualified for refusing to sign the election code of conduct. The party’s chair, Tundu Lissu, faces treason charges for calling for electoral reforms. The presidential candidate of the second-largest opposition party, ACT Wazalendo, has also been disqualified following a petition filed by the country’s registrar of political parties.

This makes the election significantly different to the last poll, held in 2020. That year, opposition parties participated, despite electoral flaws. This time, the ruling party goes to the polls virtually unchallenged. It will be looking for a seventh consecutive election victory.

The campaign is now dominated by CCM at all levels. There are indications that voter turnout will be low, with little public enthusiasm, especially knowing that a CCM victory is certain. Since 2010 the voter turnout has been shrinking. The elections in 2010 and 2020 experienced notably low voter turnout, with rates of 42.7% and 50.7%, respectively.

Tanzania continues to experience a decline in democracy, accompanied by heightened political repression and restrictions on political rights and civil liberties. The country’s status in the Freedom House democracy index dropped from the Partly Free category in 2020 to the Not Free category going into 2025.

Polling
Tanzanian general elections include three main categories: presidential, parliamentary, and councillor seats. They take place across the mainland and Zanzibar, Tanzania’s semi-autonomous state.

The 2025 elections feature 272 constituencies, 222 of which are mainland and 50 of which are in Zanzibar. Eight new constituencies were created in the mainland earlier this year.

The Independent Electoral Commission announced that a total of 37.7 million people had registered as voters in the 2025 elections, compared to 29.8 million at the last election: a 26.55% increase. According to the commission this reflects a rise in population but critics allege a scheme to manipulate the vote during the elections.

The electoral commission has cleared 16 presidential candidates. Samia, a native of Zanzibar, is running for her first full term. Her running mate, Emmanuel Nchimbi, has deep roots within CCM.

Chadema has called for electoral reforms, a stance which has brought charges of treason and incitement against Lissu.

ACT-Wazalendo’s candidate Luhaga Mpina was barred from running after the attorney general said his party had not followed nomination procedures.

With Chadema and ACT-Wazalendo out of the presidential race in mainland Tanzania, Chama Cha Ukombozi wa Umma (Chaumma), a fringe party that has benefited from the defections of some Chadema members, has emerged as the only challenger.

Its presidential candidate and running mate are Salum Mwalimu and Devotha Minja, who defected from Chadema earlier this year.

Chaumma’s apparent campaign resources have led some to conclude that it is surreptitiously backed by the ruling party. Chaumma and the 15 other fringe parties run the risk of legitimising an already flawed electoral process.

In Zanzibar, incumbent Hussein Mwinyi of CCM is seeking another term. He faces competition from Othman Masoud of ACT-Wazalendo. This will be the first general election in Zanzibar without opposition icon Seif Shariff Hamad, who died in 2021. He was a perennial presidential candidate in Zanzibar, always claiming that he had won but never becoming president.

In 2010 a government of national unity was formed in which he became the first vice president in a gesture aimed at reconciliation.

Campaign issues
The CCM is promising to deliver a strengthened economy, infrastructure development and improved healthcare. It has also pledged a new constitution. This last promise is part of the rhetoric previously peddled during political campaigns.

When Samia took office in 2021, she initiated reforms that promised improvements in governance. These are long forgotten.

Chadema’s “No Reforms, No Elections” position continues to shape public discourse. The call has focused minds on the governance and human rights issues facing Tanzania. These include attacks on media freedom, the targeting of government critics, and gross violations of human rights and abductions.

It has had an effect too on international opinion of Tanzania. Several international organisations including the African Commission on Human Rights and the European Parliament have voiced their concern about the deteriorating human rights situation in Tanzania.

ACT-Wazalendo has resolved to pursue reforms by participating in the election, with the rallying call of Linda Kura (protect the vote).

What’s different (and what’s not) this time
There is a new electoral framework for the 2025 election.

Three new electoral laws were passed. These are the National Electoral Commission Act (2023), the Presidential, Parliamentary, and Local Government Elections Bill (2023), and the Political Parties Affairs Laws (Amendment) Bill (2023). These changes led to the establishment of a new electoral body, the Independent National Electoral Commission, with the promise of reforming the electoral system.

A multi-stakeholder engagement recommended changes to enhance the electoral body’s independence. On this basis, a government task force recommended the creation of an “independent” committee, chaired by the chief justice, to vet applications of electoral commissioners.

Despite these changes, the executive branch still maintains significant influence over the electoral structure and decision making. The president still has the powers to appoint the chair, vice chair and commissioners of the electoral body.

With the opposition pushed aside and a controlled electoral process under way, CCM’s victory is all but certain. The key question now is the future of Tanzania’s democracy.

Author
Nicodemus Minde
Researcher, United States International University

Disclosure statement
Nicodemus Minde is affiliated with the Institute for Security Studies.

03/10/2025

Edson Sithole: new book uncovers the work of a thinker, lawyer and Zimbabwean freedom fighter who ‘disappeared’.

Edson Sithole was born in what was then Southern Rhodesia in 1935. He was the first black person in southern Africa to obtain a Doctor of Laws degree. He was the second black person in the country (which became Zimbabwe in 1980) to qualify as a lawyer, and co-founded Rhodesia’s African Bar Association in 1973.

Sithole was an anti-colonial nationalist. He was “disappeared” alongside his secretary, Miriam Mhlanga, in downtown Salisbury (present-day Harare) 50 years ago. Brooks Marmon, a historian of Zimbabwe’s liberation struggle, has compiled and edited a forthcoming collection of Sithole’s writings, speeches and interviews.

Who was Edson Sithole? Why does he matter in Zimbabwe’s history?
He was one of the most prominent pan-African nationalists who had not gone into exile, a major legal and intellectual force behind multiple Zimbabwean liberation movements.

This development transformed the political scene in southern Africa. White Rhodesia was deprived of a major European ally and a secure border on its eastern flank. At the end of that year, all four of Zimbabwe’s major liberation movements united under the banner of the African National Council in Zambia.

For some of the most prominent Zimbabwean nationalists, such as Nkomo and Robert Mugabe, the Portuguese revolution resulted in their release from prison, culminating in their ascent to political power in independent Zimbabwe in early 1980.

Sithole, however, experienced no fruits of détente. Instead he became enmeshed in a political struggle with both the settler state and his erstwhile nationalist colleagues.

In early June 1975, intra African National Council violence erupted between factions loyal to its head, Abel Muzorewa, whom Sithole backed, and Nkomo, a long-time foe of Sithole, who had headed the Zimbabwe African People’s Union.

Nearly a dozen people were killed and Sithole was manhandled by Nkomo loyalists.

Near the end of the month, Sithole released a document which claimed that Nkomo and prime minister Ian Smith had reached a secret deal to elevate Nkomo to the head of the African National Council. Days later, Sithole developed severe stomach cramps. He declared that the settler state had poisoned him, an allegation backed by a Zambian doctor who treated him.

Tensions increased. The last month of Sithole’s life was consumed by attempts to derail any possible attempt by Nkomo and the Zapu element in the African National Council to reach an accord with the Rhodesian state.

What’s known about his abduction?
On Sithole’s last day as an independent man – 15 October 1975 – he held a press conference which accused the settler state of favouring Nkomo, whose faction had recently been allowed to hold a massive open-air meeting.

Two detectives visited Sithole at his office that afternoon and took a statement.

That evening, he made the short drive to the Ambassador Hotel in his blue BMW for drinks at the Quill Club.

Sithole left the hotel around 7pm, where a witness outside saw him met by two white and two black men who identified themselves as belonging to Rhodesia’s Special Branch. They escorted Sithole and his secretary into a grey Mazda van, a make typically associated with the renegade state’s security apparatus.

International media accounts identified Detective Inspector Winston Hart and Detective Section Officer George Mitchell as the two white men. As recently as April 2023, an interview with Hart about his service in Rhodesia popped up on YouTube.

Sithole was never seen again, although persistent rumours claimed that he had been seen in various government detention centres.

Sithole was just one of tens of thousands of individuals who died during Zimbabwe’s independence struggle.

Unlike South Africa, Zimbabwe did not embrace any formal transitional justice mechanism following independence. After Mugabe was voted into power, he announced:

"We will be interested to get some evidence as to what happened to Dr. Sithole. (16 March 1980 issue of the Zimbabwean Sunday Mail)"

Nothing substantial ever came out of the inquiry.

Author
Brooks Marmon
Research Associate in the Department of Historical and Heritage Studies, University of Pretoria

Disclosure statement
Brooks Marmon does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

03/10/2025

South African students still don’t feel safe on campus: how protection can be stepped up.

Students at South African universities have to deal with a disturbing reality. They face the threat of violent crime, in particular gender-based violence. They also battle with substandard infrastructure – some of it life threatening. And institutions aren’t ready to respond.

We are academics in environmental health and public health. Our work examines occupational health and safety in educational environments.

We recently completed a review of health and safety challenges in South African universities. We looked at public records, police reports, campus press statements, and national media coverage of violent incidents. We also noted infrastructure hazards reported at South African universities from 2015 to 2024.

Our study covered 10 of South Africa’s 26 public universities to identify campus safety trends.

Our findings reveal persistently high levels of danger, including murder and bad student housing conditions.

Rather than declining over the 10-year period studied, incidents appear to be occurring with greater frequency and severity. This suggests that interventions have not done enough about systemic safety challenges.

Campus safety crisis and evidence-based solutions
South Africa has some of the world’s highest crime rates. In 2024, the country had a crime index of 75.4, which is to be considered high. Over the observed period, the value fluctuated between 75 and 77. The same index ranks the country as the fifth most dangerous in the world.

Our findings show that this pervasive violence has entered higher education institutions. It has created unsafe learning environments that compromise student welfare and academic achievement.

Violence on campus
Over the 10-year review period, we found repeated and widespread reports of violence involving students and staff.

Fatal violence was concentrated in certain provinces, notably Gauteng and KwaZulu-Natal. Gender-based violence and student murders occurred in both formal university residences and off-campus areas.

Between January 2023 and September 2024, for example, at least 17 students were murdered across South Africa, based on police and media reports.

In 2023, the vice-chancellor of the University of Fort Hare, Professor Sakhela Buhlungu, was the target of an assassination attempt. During the attack, his bodyguard, Mboneli Vesele, was shot and killed while waiting for Buhlungu outside his home.

Women students were subject to r**e and other forms of gender based violence. Our review recorded dozens of reported cases of r**e and sexual assault in universities. Between 20% and 25% of female university students in South Africa report being sexually victimised during their studies. In 2017, South African university campuses recorded 47 cases of r**e and sexual assault. The University of Cape Town had the highest number, nine cases. South Africa has 1.2 million students in its universities in 2025.

Gender-based violence cases are often under reported because of stigma and fear. Some universities lack support systems or clear procedures for handling complaints. Despite national policy pressure, the sector remains far behind in offering consistent protection and care.

Dangerous infrastructure and unsafe residences
Our findings show widespread problems with student housing.

Much of it is overcrowded, under-maintained and structurally unsafe. For instance, the University of Johannesburg’s 2022 occupational health risk assessment identified 11 high-risk sites on campus. These were linked to hazards such as poor ventilation, roof leaks and chemical exposure. An additional 33 areas were classified as moderate risk due to biological hazards, poor sanitation and inadequate waste management systems.

We also found that security in student accommodation was a concern. At some institutions, residences have unsecured entry points, making them easily accessible to intruders. Our research shows that lack of control has contributed to serious incidents, including killings and assaults inside residence rooms.

Substandard living conditions directly affect academic performance. Research shows that poor housing environments increase anxiety, illness and dropout rates.

Many universities rely on third-party providers to supplement campus housing. Oversight and safety standards in these accredited residences vary.

Poor response rates
Most universities lack clear protocols to respond to safety incidents.

In several high-profile incidents, including fatal attacks, university leadership delayed communication with students or failed to implement follow-up safety measures.

A few institutions have introduced safety initiatives like SMS alert systems, gender-based violence offices, and campus safety audits. These appear insufficient to address the systemic nature of campus safety challenges.

Violent incidents continue to rise. This suggests that the sector needs coordinated measures.

But there is no universal safety standard or consistent oversight to enforce safety requirements across institutions.

Safety and student success
This is more than a security problem.

Our research demonstrates that campus violence directly undermines academic achievement. Others show that unsafe student housing conditions have a negative impact on academic success. Students living in unsafe environments can’t focus on their studies.

Our analysis points to five critical intervention areas:

annual safety audits with external verification and public reporting

real-time campus alert systems integrated with security and law enforcement

survivor support units staffed by professionals offering psycho-social care and legal advice

safety-linked funding mechanisms

interdisciplinary safety committees.

Universities must be legally required to conduct comprehensive annual safety audits through independent, accredited assessment bodies. They should evaluate physical infrastructure integrity and student housing conditions. Similarly, campus crime patterns, emergency response capabilities, and compliance with occupational health and safety standards. Audit reports must be publicly accessible within 30 days of completion.

The Department of Higher Education and Training should tie funding to campus safety performance.

Expertise in criminology and victimology should be part of safety planning processes at universities. They would bring evidence to the design of safety measures.

Students must also be involved in designing and overseeing safety strategies. Student committees, peer-led awareness campaigns, and direct input into campus policy are essential for building trust and driving action.

Authors
Maasago M. Sepadi
PhD in public health, Tshwane University of Technology

Martha Chadyiwa
Associate Professor of Public Health , Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University

Disclosure statement
The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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