01/07/2023
【The Contents and Variation of Roman Records in Chinese Official Histories from the Han through the Tang】
Authur：Xizhi LIU（刘西沚）
Chinese official dynastic histories involving records related to Rome can be roughly divided into three periods based on chronological characteristics. In the first phase, which predates the 5th century, the early official historical sources served as the initial encounters with the Roman Daqin, including works such as Hou Hanshu (后汉书)[ The Hanshu 汉书 introduces 230-year historical events from 206 BC to 23 AD, being basically completed by Ban Gu 班固 (206-24 BC) in 83 BC.], Weilue (魏略) and Jinshu (晋书). The term "Daqin" first appeared in the Hou Hanshu (the Book of the Later Han) and was mentioned 12 times throughout the work. During the Han Dynasty in China, the ruling class gradually recognized the significance of the Western Regions through their struggles against the Xiongnu. As a result, they embarked on efforts to establish communication and engagement with various ethnic groups in the Western Regions, seeking military and political cooperation. Hou Hanshu also records that General Ban Chao (班超), stationed in the Western Regions, appointed Gan Ying (甘英) as an envoy to Daqin, hoping to establish an alliance with the Roman Empire to combat the military threats posed by the Huns jointly. After passing through the Parthian border, they planned to cross the sea. However, the Parthians stopped them from proceeding, deceiving them about the dangers of a long and perilous sea voyage. They also mentioned that something in the sea could cause homesickness and even death. As a result, Gan Ying and his companions had to abandon their plans to reach Daqin.
Although Gan Ying's journey failed, he provided valuable insights into the transportation routes and the cultural traits of ethnic groups along the Western Regions. As a result, the term Daqin officially entered the official vision at that time. Another event In 166 A.D., King Andun (安敦, possibly known as Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) of the Daqin Empire sent a messenger with gifts to China through the Rinan route. Hou Hanshu introduced the travel routes to the westernmost country known as "Daqin," providing substantial descriptions of Daqin's economic trade and products and its political and administrative management. It delved into the currency system[ In the book Hou Hanshu, ancient Chinese recorded that "The Daqin State uses gold and silver currencies. One gold coin was worth ten silver coins" (Hou Hanshu, vol. 88 Xiyuzhuan, §.26). Roman and Byzantine coins, including imitations, have been found in various places such as Vietnam (a total of 10 imitative Roman coins featuring "ANTONINVS" were unearthed), Indonesia (54 coins), and Cambodia's Angkor Borei (13 coins). These coins served as currency or decorative items. In China (97 coins, with 41 identified), Byzantine coins were abundant during the reigns of Anastasius I Dicorus and Justinian I but declined during the reign of Heraclius I.], trade conditions[ It usually made ten times more profit through trade with Anxi (Parthia) and Tianzhu (India), while the people of Daqin were relatively honest. The prices in the domestic market were relatively uniform. In addition, their food prices were relatively cheap, and the country was rich" (Hou Hanshu, vol. 88 Xiyuzhuan, §.27).
Subsequently, the Weilue presented the most comprehensive and detailed content regarding Rome, encompassing a substantial length of 1,750 characters. In contrast, the account provided in the Hou Hanshu was significantly shorter, consisting of only 941 characters. In 226, Sun Quan (孙权) granted an audience to Qin Lun (秦论), a merchant who claimed to be from Rome. Qin Lun had lived in China for over a decade, and Sun Quan even sent an official named Liu Xian (刘咸) to accompany Qin Lun on his return journey to Rome. Regrettably, Liu Xian passed away halfway through the trip. Notably, Qin Lun traveled to and from China by sailing and entering through Vietnam. The shipbuilding industry in Wu was highly developed during the Three Kingdoms period, and many large merchant ships were built. Besides, Rulers like Sun Quan also displayed an open diplomatic approach and engaged with various Southeast Asian countries, which helped form and facilitate the maritime Silk Road. The contents documented in Weilue are more comprehensive than Other works, particularly in their detailed descriptions of the various goods originating from Daqin and its vassal states.
In Jinshu, it is evident that the direct mention of Daqin drastically reduced to 310 characters. Although the Jin Dynasty still controlled significant northwest cities like Dunhuang in Xinjiang, the internal conflicts during the Three Kingdoms period weakened the central authority's control over the Western Regions. The Jin Dynasty's court naturally shifted its attention towards those emerging nomadic kingdoms, leaving limited capacity to focus on the faraway Roman Empire. Jinshu's content on Rome is mostly an excerpt from previous works such as Hou Hanshu and Weilue, the information presented is almost identical to what was already available.
During the 5th to 7th century, the second phase marked a transition in understanding Roman names from Daqin to Fulin. This transition is evident in three major historical texts: Songshu (宋书), Liangshu (梁书), and Weishu (魏书). These texts contain relatively few references to Rome, with characters counts of 172, 239, and 325, respectively. In the Eastern Jin dynasty (317-420 CE), the imperial court moved its capital from Luoyang to Nanjing. This decision had several consequences: it distanced the court from conflicts in the north. However, it relinquished control over trade routes to the Western Regions and gradually lost information about Western countries. However, records in the Songshu and the Liangshu indicate that the southern maritime route became more critical with the advancement of maritime technology. Mediterranean commodities like glassware as evidence were excavated in southern Chinese provinces such as Guangdong, Jiangsu, and Guangxi.
As the first minority ethnic regime in the Chinese official account, the Northern Wei government aimed to enhance the legitimacy ruling by documenting its history in Weishu. Thank to their reconnecting with certain countries in the Western Regions, Weishu is one of the earliest sources to capture the shift from Roman to Eastern Roman (Byzantine) realms, covering the period from 386 CE to 550 CE, coinciding with Byzantine history from the death of Theodosius I to the reign of Justinian. However, they did not realize that different names for the Eastern Roman Empire, like Pulan (普岚), Fuluni (伏卢尼), or Fulin, all referred to the same entity as Daqin (Roman Empire) at that time, resulting in separate biographies for each name.
During the third phase after the 7th century, the references to "Rome" had transformed into predominantly focusing on the Byzantine Empire as Fulin. This shift is reflected in official historical works such as Suishu (隋书), Beishi (北史), Jiu Tangshu (旧唐书), and Xin Tangshu (新唐书). In the latter two, the direct descriptions of Rome increased to 904 and 990 characters, respectively. During the Tang Dynasty, the representation of Byzantium as "Fulin" gradually supplanted the usage of Daqin. Much of the description pertaining to Daqin from the Han Dynasty continued to be retained, with the added clarification that Fulin was identified as Daqin, Noteworthy records might stem from Jingxingji (经行记), authored by Du Huan(杜环), a former Tang Dynasty soldier who, after being captured by the Arabs during the Battle of Talas, reached Africa. Building upon the preceding dynasty's records, the Tang Dynasty introduced information regarding Roman military concepts and religious beliefs. Historical records show that the Tang Dynasty witnessed frequent diplomatic visits and religious exchanges with Fulin. This period marked a notable peak in the richness of historical materials documenting the cultural interactions between East and West, surpassing even the level achieved during the Han Dynasty. Owing to the flourishing stability of the Tang Dynasty and its close relations with the Western Regions.
