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Etymology
The Vegetarian Society, founded in 1847, says that the word “vegetarian” is derived from the Latin word vegetus meaning lively or vigorous.[13] Despite this, the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) and other standard dictionaries state that the word was formed from the term "vegetable" and the suffix "-arian".[14] The OED writes that the word came into gene
ral use after the formation of the Vegetarian Society at Ramsgate in 1847, though it offers two examples of usage from 1839 and 1842.[15]
[edit]History
Main article: History of vegetarianism
The earliest records of (lacto) vegetarianism come from ancient India and ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE.[16] In both instances the diet was closely connected with the idea of nonviolence towards animals (called ahimsa in India) and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers.[17]
“ Indian emperor Ashoka asserted protection to fauna: "Twenty-six years after my coronation various animals were declared to be protected — parrots, mainas, aruna, ruddy geese, wild ducks, nandimukhas, gelatas, bats, queen ants, terrapins, boneless fish, vedareyaka, gangapuputaka, sankiya fish, tortoises, porcupines, squirrels, deer, bulls, okapinda, wild asses, wild pigeons, domestic pigeons and all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible. Those nanny goats, ewes and sows which are with young or giving milk to their young are protected, and so are young ones less than six months old. C***s are not to be caponized, husks hiding living beings are not to be burnt and forests are not to be burnt either without reason or to kill creatures. One animal is not to be fed to another." —Edicts of Ashoka, Fifth Pillar ”
Following the Christianisation of the Roman Empire in late antiquity, vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe.[18] Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons, but none of them eschewed fish.[19] It re-emerged during the Renaissance,[20] becoming more widespread in the 19th and 20th centuries. The International Vegetarian Union, a union of the national societies, was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the 20th century as a result of nutritional, ethical, and more recently, environmental and economic concerns.
[edit]Varieties of vegetarianism
Roadside café near Kullu, India. There are a number of types of vegetarianism, which exclude or include various foods. Ovo vegetarianism includes eggs but not dairy products. Lacto vegetarianism includes dairy products but not eggs. Ovo-lacto vegetarianism (or lacto-ovo vegetarianism) includes animal/dairy products such as eggs, milk, and honey. Veganism excludes all animal flesh and animal products, including milk, honey, and eggs, and may also exclude any products tested on animals, or any clothing from animals.[22]
Raw veganism includes only fresh and uncooked fruit, nuts, seeds, and vegetables. Vegetables can only be cooked up to a certain temperature.[23]
Fruitarianism permits only fruit, nuts, seeds, and other plant matter that can be gathered without harming the plant.[24]
Buddhist vegetarianism (also known as su vegetarianism) excludes all animal products as well as vegetables in the allium family (which have the characteristic aroma of onion and garlic): onion, garlic, scallions, leeks, or shallots. Jain vegetarianism includes dairy but excludes eggs and honey, as well as root vegetables. Macrobiotic diets consist mostly of whole grains and beans. Some vegetarians also avoid products that may use animal ingredients not included in their labels or which use animal products in their manufacturing; for example, sugars that are whitened with bone char, cheeses that use animal rennet (enzymes from animal stomach lining), gelatin (derived from the collagen inside animals' skin, bones and connective tissue), some cane sugar (but not beet sugar) and apple juice/alcohol clarified with gelatin or crushed shellfish and sturgeon, while other vegetarians are unaware of such ingredients.[4][5][6]
Individuals may describe themselves as "vegetarian" while practicing a semi-vegetarian diet,[10][25][26] as some dictionary definitions pertaining to vegetarianism vary and include the consumption of fish,[9] while other definitions exclude fish and all animal flesh.[12] In other cases, individuals may simply describe themselves as "flexitarian".[25] These diets may be followed by those who reduce animal flesh consumed as a way of transitioning to a complete/and or true vegetarian diet or for health, environmental, or other reasons. Semi-vegetarian diets include:
pescetarianism, which includes fish and some other forms of seafood;
pollotarianism, which includes poultry;
"pollo-pescatarian", which includes poultry and fish, or "white meat" only;
macrobiotic diets consisting mostly of whole grains and beans, but may sometimes include fish. Semi-vegetarianism is contested by vegetarian groups who state that vegetarianism excludes all animal flesh.[12]
[edit]Health benefits and concerns
Scientific endeavors in the area of vegetarianism have shifted from concerns about nutritional adequacy to investigating health benefits and disease prevention.[27] The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada have stated that at all stages of life, a properly planned vegetarian diet is "healthful, nutritionally adequate, and provides health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases". Large-scale studies have shown that mortality from ischaemic heart disease was 30% lower among vegetarian men and 20% lower among vegetarian women than in non-vegetarians.[28][29][30] Necessary nutrients, proteins, and amino acids for the body's sustenance can be found in vegetables, grains, nuts, soymilk, eggs and dairy.[31] Vegetarian diets offer lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol and animal protein, and higher levels of carbohydrates, fibre, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants such as vitamins C and E and phytochemicals.[32][33]
Vegetarians tend to have lower body mass index,[34] lower levels of cholesterol, lower blood pressure, and less incidence of heart disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, renal disease, osteoporosis, metabolic syndrome,[35] dementias such as Alzheimer’s disease and other disorders.[36] Non-lean red meat, in particular, has been found to be directly associated with increased risk of cancers of the esophagus, liver, colon, and the lungs.[37] Other studies have shown significant differences between vegetarians and non-vegetarians in mortality from cerebrovascular disease, stomach cancer, colorectal cancer, breast cancer, or prostate cancer.[29] A 2010 study compared a group of vegetarian and meat-eating Seventh Day Adventists in which vegetarians scored lower on depression tests and had better mood profiles.[38]
The 2010 version of Dietary Guidelines for Americans, a report issued by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services every five years states:
In prospective studies of adults, compared to non-vegetarian eating patterns, vegetarian-style eating patterns have been associated with improved health outcomes—lower levels of obesity, a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, and lower total mortality. Several clinical trials have documented that vegetarian eating patterns lower blood pressure. On average, vegetarians consume a lower proportion of calories from fat (particularly saturated fatty acids); fewer overall calories; and more fiber, potassium, and vitamin C than do non-vegetarians. Vegetarians generally have a lower body mass index. These characteristics and other lifestyle factors associated with a vegetarian diet may contribute to the positive health outcomes that have been identified among vegetarians.[39]
[edit]Nutrition
Main articles: Vegetarian nutrition and vegan nutrition
A fruit stall in Barcelona
Western vegetarian diets are typically high in carotenoids, but relatively low in long-chain n-3 fatty acids and vitamin B12. Vegans can have particularly low intake of vitamin B and calcium if they do not eat enough items such as collard greens, leafy greens, tempeh and tofu (soy). High levels of dietary fibre, folic acid, vitamins C and E, and magnesium, and low consumption of saturated fat are all considered to be beneficial aspects of a vegetarian diet
