09/09/2022
Over 2,050 years ago today in 31 BC, the decisive battle of The Final War of the Roman Republic was fought at the Battle of Actium.
Following the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 B.C, civil war broke out between the pro (Caesarians) and anti-Caesar (republicans) factions. The Caesarians were led by one of Caesar’s best generals and his chosen heir, Marc Antony and Octavian respectively. Opposing them were the republicans, led by Brutus and Cassius, two of Caesar’s assassins. Brutus and Cassius had fled to the eastern provinces, attempting to gather an army. Those back in Rome were trying to stabilize the Roman state following the assassination and took nearly two years to do so. The two sides clashed in 42 B.C at Philippi in Greece, with the Caesarians winning a decisive victory.
Before the victory at Philippi the Caesarians had formed the Second Triumvirate, effectively splitting the provinces beyond Italy (the Senate nominally controlled Italy) between Octavian, Marc Antony and Lepidus. Lepidus was a Roman statesman and ally of Julius Caesar but proved less ambitious than his counterparts. Lepidus would suffer mightily from Octavian’s ambition. He would be marginalized as the empire slowly divided between Octavian in the west and Marc Antony in the east.
In 41 B.C, Marc Antony was successfully seduced by Queen Cleopatra of the Ptolemaic Egypt, furthering an already present mistrust between himself and Octavian. To help mend the relationship, Antony took Octavian’s sister’s hand in marriage the following year. The marriage would prove unsuccessful, as Antony returned to Cleopatra in 37 B.C and took to ruling his half of the provinces alongside the Egyptian queen. After a successful campaign against Armenia in 34 B.C, Antony held a triumph in the Egyptian city of Alexandria, in which Antony and Cleopatra appeared together atop golden thrones. Additionally, the twins Cleopatra bore for Marc Antony were given royal titles.
Many in Rome began voicing concerns that Marc Antony was attempting to hand Roman lands over to a foreigner. Octavian did not hesitate in drumming up propaganda that his adversary was guilty of treason and had begun adopting Egyptian customs. The tensions continued to rise until war broke out. In 32 B.C. Cleopatra and Antony took sail for Asia Minor (modern day Turkey) with 230 ships and 23 legions, there they made winter quarters. Their plan was to then head for Greece and then cross the Adriatic Sea into Italy. Octavian, with only 100 ships but 24 legions set up camp in Dalmatia (modern day Croatia), thus preventing his opponents from invading Italy unopposed. Antony and Cleopatra anchored in the Gulf of Ambrosia in western Greece, hoping to lure Octavian into battle. Being wise enough to sit tight, rather than to confront the superior general on land, Octavian refused to battle.
Octavian’s top general, Agrippa, was at sea commanding 300 galleys. Agrippa had shrewdly swung around Greece, cutting off the lines of supply for Marc Antony and Cleopatra. Now isolated, time was on Octavian’s side as he and Agrippa chose to blockade the small opening that led into the Gulf of Ambrosia. After suffering from attrition, favorable winds gave Marc Antony his chance to launch a break-out on September 2nd, 31 B.C. Antony positioned the bulk of his ships at the center, hoping to punch through the blockade, thus opening an escape route for Cleopatra and her royal treasure ships. His breakout worked, he and Cleopatra were able to plow through the blockade and set sail to Egypt. The rest of the navy on the other hand, were left engaged with Octavian and Agrippa. Eventually succumbing to a crushing defeat after hours of heroic fighting. The army too was left stranded and they surrendered soon after learning of their abandonment by Marc Antony. Hundreds of ships were destroyed and about 10,000 men were killed.
Octavian was able to follow-up this triumphant victory the next year by laying siege to Alexandria. Disgraced and unable to raise an army, Antony was powerless to stop his rival. After incorrectly receiving word of Cleopatra’s death, Antony committed su***de. In defeat, Cleopatra tried to seduce Octavian, but he refused her advances. Seeing no way to continue her life with dignity, Cleopatra also committed su***de. Octavian quickly executed any heirs to the Egyptian throne and incorporated the kingdom as a Roman province. Without a single rival Octavian changed his name to Augustus and over the coming years reorganized the Republic into an empire under his sole control as Princeps Civitatis (First Citizen) of Rome.
[Online References]
https://www.warhistoryonline.com/.../battle-actium...
https://www.history.com/this-day-in.../the-battle-of-actium
http://www.livius.org/articles/battle/actium-31-bce/
https://www.livescience.com/2390-battle-actium-changed...
Artwork: Anachronistic baroque painting of the battle of Actium by Laureys a Castro, 1672.
