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there is no shortage of fault to be found amid our stars

19/03/2023

Little is known about when Sumerian-speaking people arrived in southern Mesopotamia, assuming they did not originate there. Either way, from a very early period a multilingual environment existed in southern Mesopotamia, which included languages like Sumerian, an early form of Akkadian, other Semitic languages, and Hurrian. Some scholars have posited the possibility of an otherwise unknown substrate, or influencing language of the area, due to the presence of words of unknown origin in Sumerian writings. It has been demonstrated, however, that these words either originated in other known languages, are compounds in Sumerian, or words common to many languages of no clear origin.

19/03/2023

The Sumerian language was spoken in southern Mesopotamia before the 2nd millennium BCE and was the first language to be written in the cuneiform script. It is an isolate language meaning we know of no other languages that relate to it ancestrally. Although there are some theories that Sumerian is a member of the Uralic languages like Hungarian and Finnish, or other language families, this is a minority view with insufficient evidence to make a definite claim. The language was spoken in a region where Semitic languages were also spoken, particularly Akkadian, and it eventually fell out of use in favor of those languages by the turn of the 2nd millennium BCE. However, a literary form of the language continued to be written for another 2000 years, and it also had notable influences on other languages of the region with respect to their lexicon, grammar, and writing.

17/03/2023

Astronomers know that the first stars, officially known as Population III stars, must have been made almost solely of hydrogen and helium—the elements that formed as a direct result of the big bang. They would have contained none of the heavier elements like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and iron that are found in stars shining today. In other words, Population III stars were metal-free. (Astronomers refer to any element heavier than helium as a metal.)

This might seem like a bold statement given that we have not actually observed any metal-free stars. But as with all scientific claims, it is based on evidence and reasoning: We know from observations, experiments, and calculations that only hydrogen and helium (and minute amounts of lithium) were formed directly after the big bang. The only way that heavier elements like carbon, oxygen, and iron can form is by fusion of lighter elements in the cores of stars. So until the first stars began to form them, none of these elements existed in the universe. The first stars must have been metal-free.

17/03/2023

Four hundred thousand years after the big bang, the universe was a cold, dark fog of hydrogen and helium atoms. Less than 400 million years later, it had begun to shine with the light of infant galaxies. Sometime in between, the first stars must have formed.

What were these stars made of? How big and bright were they? How long did they live, and what happened to them when they died? Do any still exist?

The fact is, no one really knows exactly what the first stars were like. Not even the most powerful telescopes operating today—space telescopes like Hubble, Spitzer, and Chandra, and ground-based telescopes like Keck and ALMA—have been able to detect them. But we do have some ideas.

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